Influence of model porosity on the properties of Ti–6Al–4V alloy samples, produced by 3D printing

Keywords

solid oxide fuel cell, anode substrate, titanium alloys, porosity, 3D printing.

Cite as

Brodnikovskyi D. М., Kuzmenko М. М., Maksymenko М. V., Dmytrychenko О. О., Verbylo D. H., Okun І. Yu., Brodnikovskyi Ye. М., Vasylyev О. D., Ostash О. P., and Holovenko Ya. B. Influence of model porosity on the properties of Ti–6Al–4V alloy samples, produced by 3D printing. Physicochemical Mechanics of Materials. 2026. 62(3), 134-140.

Abstract

The effect of model porosity (30; 40; 50, and 60%) on the mechanical and electrical properties, as well as the fracture micromechanism of samples produced by 3D printing from Ti–6Al–4V ELI powder, was investigated with the aim of developing a technology for manufacturing porous anode substrates of the lightweight solid oxide fuel cells. After annealing in argon, the material of the samples exhibits a martensitic structure typical of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy. At a porosity of 60%, the tensile and flexural strengths are 169 and 289 MPa, respectively, under a mixed fracture mode involving dimpled and intergranular mechanisms. The electrical conductivity is 2105 S/m, which meets the requirements for materials used in fuel cell components.

References

1. L.-Y. Gao, H.-K. Yang, X. Chen, W.-D. Tang, X.-M. Huang, and Z.-Q. Liu, “The development of porous metallic materials: a short review of fabrication, characteristics, and applications,” Physica Scripta, 98, Is. 12 (2023). Art. no. 122001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/ad086c
2. A. Hassan, I. A. Alnaser, M. A. Al-Rashed, and A. Al-Mubarak, “A review of different manufacturing methods of metallic foams,” ACS Omega, 9, 7285-7302 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c08613
3. I. Kaur, and A. Singh, “Critical evaluation of additively manufactured metal lattices for viability in advanced heat exchangers,” Int. J. of Heat and Mass. Transfer, 168 (2021). Art. no. 120858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120858
4. J.P.J. de Oliveira, F. C. Antunes, T. Dias, R. Cesar, G. G. Silva, J. Hunt, G. Doubek, and H. Zanin, “Porous metal substrates for solid oxide fuel cells: Manufacturing techniques and future perspectives,” Ceramics Int., 51, Is. 9, 10951-10972 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2025.01.059
5. M.C. Tucker, “Progress in metal-supported solid oxide fuel cells: A review,” J. of Power Sources, 195, Is. 15, 4570-4582 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.02.035
6. K. J. Kim, B. H. Park, S. J. Kim, Y. Lee, H. Bae, and G. M. Choi, “Micro solid oxide fuel cell fabricated on porous stainless steel: a new strategy for enhanced thermal cycling ability,” Scientific Reports, 6 (2016). Art. no. 22443. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22443
7. H. Xu, Y. Han, J. Zhu, M. Ni, and Z. Yao, “Status and progress of metal-supported solid oxide fuel cell: Towards large-scale manufactory and practical applications,” Energy Reviews, Is. 3 (2024). Art. no. 100051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enrev.2023.100051
8. V. Podhurska, D. Brodnikovskyi, M. Gadzyra, Ye. Brodnikovskyi, S. Lavrys, O. Ostash, O. Vasylyev, and B. Timurkutluk, “Microstructure and physico-mechanical behavior of titanium-based porous composites for anode substrates of solid oxide fuel cells,” in: Proc. 8th Int. Mater. Sci. Conf. HighMatTech-2023, (Kyiv, October, 2-6, 2023), Kyiv (2023), p. 61.
9. D. Brodnikovskyi, “Materials for connecting solid oxide fuel cell (overview),” Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics, 63 (2024), pp. 184-193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11106-025-00450-y
10. M. Kuzmenko, and N. Poryadchenko, “Perspective materials for application in fuel-cell technologies,” Fuel Cell Technologies: State and Perspectives. NATO Science Series, 202 (2005), pp. 253-258. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3498-9_27
11. K. Kobayashi, R. Miyata, K. Yashiro, H. Takamura, K. Yoshimi, S. Hashimoto, and K. Okai, “Evaluation of titanium-based alloys as interconnects for the light-weight SOFC system,” Electrochem. Soc., 91, Is. 1, 2279-2290 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1149/09101.2279ecst
12. V. Podhurska, R. Chepil, M. Kuzmenko, E. Reshetnyak, Ya. Shchur, A. Andrushchak, and O. Ostash, “Long-term oxidation resistance and electrical conductivity of titanium-based materials for lightweight SOFC interconnects,” J. of Alloys and Compounds, 1044 (2025). Art. no. 184520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.184520
13. S. Ford, and M. Despeisse, “Additive manufacturing and sustainability: an exploratory study of the advantages and challenges,” J. of Cleaner Production, 137, 1573-1587 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.150
14. B. Dutta, and F.H. Froes, Additive Manufacturing of Titanium Alloys State of the Art, Challenges, and Opportunities, Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804782-8.00001-X
15. M. Fousova, and D. Vojtech, “Thermal treatment of 3D-printed titanium alloy,” Manufacturing Technol., 18, Is. 2, 227-232 (2018). https://doi.org/10.21062/ujep/82.2018/a/1213-2489/MT/18/2/227
16. Z. Zhu, C. Wang, X. Hang, T. Liu, and C. Dong, “A high-temperature Ti-6.8Al-6.8Zr-2.3V-2.1Mo-0.7Nb alloy suitable for laser-additive manufacturing,” Mater. Sci. and Eng. A, 883 (2023). Art. no. 145519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2023.145519
17. P. Kruth, P. Mercelis, J. Van Vaerenbergh, L. Froyen, and M. Rombouts, “Binding mechanisms in selective laser sintering and selective laser melting,” Rapid Prototyping J., 11, Is. 1, 26-36 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1108/13552540510573365
18. M. Jiao, H. Long, B. Xiao, X. Liang, and F. Lin, “Electron beam powder bed fusion additive manufacturing: a comprehensive review and its development in China,” Additive Manufact. Frontiers, 3, Is. 4 (2024). Art. no. 200177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amf.2024.200177
19. M. Fousová, D. Vojtěch, K. Doubrava, M. Daniel, and C.-F. Lin, “Influence of inherent surface and internal defects on mechanical properties of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V alloy: Comparison between selective laser melting and electron beam melting,” Materials, 11 (2018). Art. no. 537. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11040537
20. Titanium Alloys Ti-6Al-4V Grade23.
21. V.F. Grabin, Principles of Metals Science and Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloy Welded Joints [in Russian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1975).
22. Z. Zhu, J. Niu, X. Zhang, N. Liu, and L. Jia, “Achieving high strength and ductility of additive-manufactured near-α titanium alloy with fine lamellar microstructure,” Mater. Chem. and Phys., 356 (2006). Art. no. 132328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2026.132328
23. O. Makhnenko, N. Ananchenko, S. Kandala, A. Babenko, and D. Kovalchuk, “Prediction of structure and mechanical properties of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V during layer formation of 3D products by additive technology of electron beam cladding,” Mech. and Adv. Technol., 84, Is. 3, 5-14 (2018). https://doi.org/10.20535/2521-1943.2018.84.144127
24. R.R. Boyer, “Titanium and its alloys: metallurgy, heat treatment and alloy characteristics,” in: Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering, (2010), 12 p. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470686652.eae198
25. K.C. Wincewicz, and J.S. Cooper, “Taxonomies of SOFC material and manufacturing alternatives,” J. of Power Sources, 140, Is. 2, 280-296 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.08.032
26. S. Tkachenko, D. Brodnikovskyi, J. Cizek, P. Komarov, Y. Brodnikovskyi, Y. Tymoshenko, S. Csaki, M. Pinchuk, O. Vasylyev, L. Čelko, M. Gadzyra, and T. Chráska, “Novel Ti-Si-C composites for SOFC interconnect materials: Production optimization,” Ceramics Int., 48, Is. 19(A), 27785-27798 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.06.081